In the 1980s, a firearms license was required for doing so, but these sprays have since been deregulated. Thomas Kearney, associate dean and professor in theDepartment of Clinical Pharmacy at theUniversity of California San Francisco and co-author of a 2014 study on pepper spray injuries, told us he didnt have knowledge about these particular pepper ball devices, but that the USPP was probably referring to an OC containing lacrimator. Deploying chemical irritants against peaceful protestors in a public park to clear a path for President Trump to pose for photos was an egregious, dangerous, and excessive abuse of force, Mishori said. As we enter into the 21st century, chemical weapons are used more and more by the police as yet another tool to protect corporate profit and the status quo. Reyna catches him in the act and grabs him by the jacket. Penal Code 244 PC is Californias law on assault with caustic chemicals. It makes it a crime to: As used in this section, a flammable substance means: Penal Code 171.7 PC is the California statute that makes it a crime to: A sterile area means any part of a PTF that is controlled in a manner consistent with the facilitys security plan. Penal Code 22810 only prohibits the unlawful use/possession of tear gas. OC, CN, CS and blends are all allowed. The solvent is then evaporated, and the remaining waxlike resin is the oleoresin capsaicin. Dogs: How Effective Is It? "The point is we admitted to using what we used," Sgt. Such injuries can cause blindness, for example, if the eyes are hit.. Are guns more effective than pepper spray in an Alaska bear attack? The most important chemical in OC is capsaicin. Senate Backs Purchase of Pepper Spray Without ID - Massachusetts news - Boston.com", "Florida Statues 790.01 Unlicensed carrying of concealed weapons or concealed firearms", "Florida Statues 790.053 Open carrying of weapons", "Michigan Penal Code 750.224d Self-defense spray or foam device", " 18.2-312. Often, the opposite of this is true and a good example from the world of alternative cancer therapies is apricot kernels, yes - the husky, hard bit at the center of an apricot. Tear gas and pepper spray are chemical weapons. rendelet a kzbiztonsgra klnsen veszlyes eszkzkrl, "The Department of Justice and Equality: Firearms & Ammunition", "Regolamento concernente la definizione delle caratteristiche tecniche degli strumenti di autodifesa che nebulizzano un principio attivo naturale a base di Oleoresin Capsicum e che non abbiano attitudine a recare offesa alla persona, in attuazione dell'articolo 3, comma 32, della legge n. 94/2009. . There is associated shortness of breath, although studies performed with asthmatics have not produced any asthma attacks in those individuals, and monitoring is still needed for the individuals after exposure. (b)No person addicted to any narcotic drug shall purchase, possess, or use tear gas or any tear gas weapon. 3. This temporary blindness allows officers to more easily restrain subjects and permits people in danger to use pepper spray in self-defense for an opportunity to escape. In a 2018 report, Physicians for Human Rights found: A systematic review of medical literature documenting the health effects of chemical irritants identified 5,131 people who suffered injuries; two of these people died and 70 suffered permanent disabilities. The canisters were the cause of one of the deaths and several injuries. Citizens in Idaho can own and carry pepper spray of any formulation so long as the chemicals are not intended to cause permanent harm. Copyright 2023 Shouse Law Group, A.P.C. In an interview with former White House Press Secretary Sean Spicer for Newsmax, Trump described the photo op as a spontaneous event and downplayed any use of force to remove protesters. Note also that these laws make it a crime to sell or give tear gas to a minor.3, A tear gas weapon is any cartridge or bomb, that upon explosion, releases tear gas.4. When peaceful protesters are dispersed by the order of the president from the doorstep of the peoples house, the White House using tear gas and flash grenades in order to stage a photo op at a noble church, we can be forgiven for believing that the president is more interested in power than in principle, presumptive Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden, said. Possession in a public place can be punished by confiscation and a fine. 1. Pepper sprays without any pre-compressed gas or explosive propellent are unrestricted. In 1995, the Los Angeles Times reported at least 61 deaths associated with police use of pepper spray since 1990 in the USA. For individuals not previously exposed to OC effects, the general feelings after being sprayed can be best likened to being "set alight". He said he believed the terms were used interchangeably- tear gas vs lacrimator. A lacrimator, of course, is a substance that produces tears, and both CS and OC do that. U.S. Park Police says officers used pepper balls, not tear gas. Its true pepper balls, which contain a pepper spray-like irritant, have a different makeup than another chemical typical referred to as tear gas (and which USPP specifically says it didnt use). Police officers are allowed to carry pepper spray as part of their standard equipment. Authority to possess and use Oleoresin Capsicum devices remains with Tasmania Police Officers (As part of general-issue operational equipment), and Tasmanian Justice Department (H.M. The most common compounds are known as chloroacetophenone (CN) and chlorobenzylidenemalononitrile (CS). As of 1999, it was in use by more than 2,000 public safety agencies. Scott is guilty of the Penal Code 495 PC burglary for breaking into Reyna s garage to commit a crime (in this case, 484 PC petty theft). (That's 18 carbon atoms, 27. Caustic chemicals are defined generally as substances that can burn or corrode living tissue. It's not chemical," he told CBS. Police officers and customs officers carry it. A Project of The Annenberg Public Policy Center, Its also unclear whether other law enforcement entities used chemical irritants. Pepper spray works almost instantly, forcing the eyes to close and flood with tears. Reasonable belief of an imminent danger of being killed, injured, or touched unlawfully, Reasonable belief that force was needed to prevent that from happening, and. Black pepper, or Piper nigrum, is the most popular pepper variety. The contents are dangerous use with care.. But combined, they can produce toxic and deadly chlorine gas. ", "276 F3d 1125 Headwaters Forest Defense and Molly Burton v. The Coun", "Pepper Spray's Fallout, From Crowd Control to Mocking Images", "10 Inventors Who Came to Regret Their Creations", "Regulations of the People's Republic of China on Use of Police Implements and Arms by the People's Police", "Effects of Oleoresin Capsicum Pepper Spray on Human Corneal Morphology and Sensitivity - Vesaluoma et al. What counts a caustic chemical under California PC 244? Judicial Council of California Criminal Jury Instructions. Containing a payload not exceeding 20ml (0.70impfloz; 0.68USfloz), with a percentage of Oleoresin Capsicum not exceeding 10% and a maximum concentration of. throw or place caustic or flammable substances on someone, and. Pepper spray is banned for use in war by Article I.5 of the Chemical Weapons Convention, which bans the use of all riot control agents in warfare whether lethal or less-than-lethal. The units must also be sold in sealed tamper-proof packages. Defense attorneys use different strategies to defend against PC 22810 charges. Our California criminal defense attorneys will address the following in this article: 22810 PC is the California statute on unlawful use of tear gas. It should unequivocally be considered a type of tear gas. (f)Effective March 1, 1994, every tear gas container and tear gas weapon that may be lawfully purchased, possessed, and used pursuant to this section shall be accompanied by an insert including directions for use, first aid information, safety and storage information, and explanation of the legal ramifications of improper use of the tear gas container or tear gas product. And it's like, 'I don't know.' [36] Depending on the location, it may be legal to use for self-defense. So Scott breaks into his neighbor Reynas garage and steals a tank of kerosene. Local CBS reporters on the scene of the incident recovered still-warm spent canisters labeled Spede-Heat CS, as well as canisters labeled Skat Shell OC. Their use, however, can still cause fatalities. Reay DT. Immediately after talking about pepper spray, he reversed his statement and said that pepper balls, not pepper spray, were used on the protesters. Riot control agents are used by law enforcement officials for crowd control and by individuals and the general public for personal protection (for example, pepper spray)., Mishori told us the difference between the pepper balls and CS is in the chemical makeup, but the physiological effects are similar, in terms of the chemical irritation. But he or she may still have to pay a fine and may be subject o various conditions of probation, such as: Many common legal defenses can help a defendant avoid conviction for assault with a caustic chemical. Pepper spray has been associated with positional asphyxiation of individuals in police custody. Its not chemical.. But Monahan said USPP did use smoke canisters and pepper balls. USPP spokesman Sgt. California Penal Code 22810 PC makes it a crime to buy, possess, or use tear gas other than for lawful self-defense. Technically, pepper spray and other tear gases are classified as lachrymatory agents. ", Related: 13 significant protests that changed the course of history, The word "chemical," for the record, has a very broad definition: It basically means anything with a specific molecular composition and structure. Further, the product cannot be camouflaged and must have a safety feature designed to prevent accidental discharge. By regulation, OC products with a maximum OC concentration of 10% and weight range of oleoresin of capsicum and inert ingredients of 1560 grams (0.532.12oz) are authorized. (4)Every tear gas container and tear gas weapon that may be lawfully purchased pursuant to this section shall be accompanied at the time of purchase by printed instructions for use. The product is delivered differently than pepper spray (which is sprayed from a canister), but the results are the same. Well focus on the disagreement over whether tear gas was used, as many media outlets that covered the incident reported. Assault with a deadly weapon (ADW) Penal Code 245(a)(1), Penal Code 245a1 PC Californias law on assault with a deadly weapon (ADW), Flash Points of Common Flammable Substances, CALCRIM 505 Justifiable Homicide: Self-Defense or Defense of Another, 2-4 years in California state prison; and/or. Some manufacturers may show a very high percentage of OC, but the resin itself may not be spicy enough. Not only do they not work for this purpose, apricot kernels naturally have shockingly high levels of cyanide and some people with cancer have given themselves cyanide poisoning from eating the kernels or products derived from them. Spraying an attacker with pepper spray will irritate the eyes and respiratory passages, effectively disabling the attacker. These include showing that: This statute acts as a defense if you use tear gas in defense of yourself or others. But, in fact, the bucket contains a strong commercial detergent, which burns Marks arms. There is much debate over the actual cause of death in these cases. Visit our California DUI page to learn more. Being accused or arrested for a crime does not necessarily mean you will be convicted in court. But she did not intend to injure or disfigure Mark. Today, the unjustified use of chemical riot control agents threatens to erode the systems that are meant to protect us from the most dangerous weaponised chemicals. So, why can police use them? Trump has been criticized for the chain of events. They can be carried by anyone without further registration or permission. A permit is required to obtain or carry pepper spray. Weapons at California Public Transit Facilities PC 171.7, 4.4 Defacing a tear gas weapon PC 22910, People v. Gilhousen, 2019 Cal. A study of five often-recommended treatments for skin pain (Maalox, 2% lidocaine gel, baby shampoo, milk, or water) concluded that: "there was no significant difference in pain relief provided by five different treatment regimens. 4. Milk is poured into a demonstrator's eyes to. Extraction of oleoresin capsicum (OC) from peppers requires capsicum to be finely ground, from which capsaicin is then extracted using an organic solvent such as ethanol. So, why can police use them? Despite assertions to the contrary by Attorney General William Barr, pepper spray is a chemical. Up to one (1) year in county jail; and/or. These events followed the deployment of chemical riot control agents specifically pepper bombs in Washington DC last week. The Park Police Acting Chief Gregory T. Monahan said in a statement: At approximately 6:33 pm, violent protestors on H Street NW began throwing projectiles including bricks, frozen water bottles and caustic liquids, which caused USPP to issue three warnings over a loudspeaker and then clear the area. [71], When pepper spray is used in the workplace, OSHA requires a pepper spray Safety Data Sheet (SDS) be available to all employees. (2)Every tear gas container and tear gas weapon that may be lawfully purchased, possessed, and used pursuant to this section shall have a label that states: WARNING: The use of this substance or device for any purpose other than self-defense is a crime under the law. [70], It is a federal offense to carry/ship pepper spray on a commercial airliner or possess it beyond the security metal detectors at the airport. [citation needed] Many ambulance services and emergency departments carry saline to remove the spray. [33], Some "triple-action" pepper sprays also contain "tear gas" (CS gas), which can be neutralized with sodium metabisulfite (Campden tablets), though it is not for use on a person, only for area clean up. Other sprays may use an alcohol (such as isopropyl alcohol) base for a more penetrating product, but a risk of fire is present if combined with a taser.[11]. Visit our corporate site (opens in new tab). Live Science is part of Future US Inc, an international media group and leading digital publisher. . PC 244 assault with caustic chemicals is a felony in California. It was successfully adapted, except for improper usages such as when police sprayed peaceful protestors at University of California, Davis in 2011. The second category of tear gas agents are pepper sprays and activate the TRPV1 pain receptor, the article said. Can be used on warm or cold surfaces. Such an assumption is at the very core of some aspects of alternative medicine where purveyors claim that natural remedies are less harmful than those synthesized artificially. Time after exposure appeared to be the best predictor for a decrease in pain"[31], There is no way to simply neutralize the effects of tear gas, but a person can be helped to minimize the effects. The severity of health effects from pepper spray exposure may be contingent on several product-, dispersal-, and patient-related factors. It can be bought and carried by anyone over 16 years of age. According to the Scientific American and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, pepper spray is a type of tear gas or riot control agent., Dr. Ranit Mishori, senior medical adviser for Physicians for Human Rights and a Georgetown University professor of family medicine, told us in an email: Tear gas and pepper spray both belong to a class of crowd-control weapons known as chemical irritants. The chemical makeup is different, but the impact on people is similar. Personal pepper sprays can range from a low of 0.18% to a high of 3%. 32 In general, it appeared more effective in deterring bears that charged after a close encounter than against food-conditioned bears in search of food. This means it is always a defense to show that, while you may have used or possessed a substance, that substance was not tear gas. A violation of 22810 PC is a wobbler. Everybody went on a tangent saying 'Well, isn't a pepper ball tear gas?' We dont know if those canisters could have been used before the June 1 incident, as there were some type of chemical agents used on prior nights. They were so pleasant and knowledgeable when I contacted them. It's true pepper balls, which contain a pepper spray-like irritant, have a different makeup than another chemical typical referred to as "tear gas" (and which USPP specifically says it. Heres how it works. It causes burning, pain, and tears when it comes into contact with a person's eyes. "Vitriol"is one type of caustic substance. The military moved them back. SECONDAR Y SOURCES 1 W itkin & Epstein, California Criminal Law (4th ed. flammable liquids with a flashpoint of 150 degrees Fahrenheit or less. Democratic politicians have criticized President Donald Trump for the use of tear gas to disperse protesters near the White House on June 1 before Trump walked to St. Johns Episcopal Church to pose for photos with a Bible. Illegal use of tear gas, phosgene and other gases", "RCW 9.91.160: Personal protection spray devices", "Sale and Distribution of OC Products to Private Citizens", "The one place in Australia where it's legal to have pepper spray for self-defence", "Weapons Prohibition Act 1998 - Schedule 1", "Arms (Restricted Weapons and Specially Dangerous Airguns) Order 1984". Pepper spray, oleoresin capsicum spray, OC spray, capsaicin spray, or capsicum spray is a inflammatory agent (a compound that irritates the eyes to cause a burning sensation, pain, and temporary blindness) used in policing, riot control, crowd control, and self-defense, including defense against dogs and bears. Puzzle of the sun's mysterious 'heartbeat' signals finally solved, China's Mars rover may be dead in the dust, new NASA images reveal, Terrifying sea monster 'hafgufa' described in medieval Norse manuscripts is actually a whale. "Most" law enforcement grade pepper spray is measured anywhere from 500,000 to 2,000,000 SHU, which gives a median number of 1,250,000. Capsaicin is the same compound that makes chillies hot, but in an intense, weaponised form. A caustic chemical under Penal Code section 244 is any corrosive, flammable substance that can burn living tissue. Pepper spray is not a chemical irritant. They are given the military symbol OC, for oleoresin capsicum. Beyond the scientifically unsavvy sound bite about chemicals, Barr sought to downplay the effects of the crowd control used in Washington, D.C. (g)(1)Except as provided in paragraph (2), any person who uses tear gas or any tear gas weapon except in self-defense is guilty of a public offense and is punishable by imprisonment pursuant to subdivision (h) of Section 1170 for 16 months, or two or three years or in a county jail not to exceed one year or by a fine not to exceed one thousand dollars ($1,000), or by both the fine and imprisonment. Eduardo Delgado told us: We did not use CS or chlorobenzalmalononitrile, commonly referred to as tear gas which is often used as a non-lethal option in law enforcement. Pepper spray is an aerosol spray containing oils from cayenne pepper. [92][97], On 14 March 2012, a person dressed entirely in black entered the public gallery of the New South Wales Legislative Council and launched a paper plane into the air in the form of a petition to Police Minister Mike Gallacher calling on the government to allow civilians to carry capsicum spray. Penal Code 244 also applies to flammable substances that have a flashpoint of 150 degrees Fahrenheit or less. [34], Pepper spray typically comes in canisters, which are often small enough to be carried or concealed in a pocket or purse. A defendant who uses a caustic chemical, such as mace or pepper spray, to threaten or immobilize a robbery victim is subject to a "dangerous or deadly weapon" enhancement, the Court of Appeal for this district ruled yesterday. Water is a chemical because no matter how you slice it, it is composed of two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom arranged in a particular formation. Stephanie Pappas is a contributing writer for Live Science, covering topics ranging from geoscience to archaeology to the human brain and behavior. - + ", " 22.10.2008 N 583 " , , ", " ", "Kad ena sa me sta obeou trestnho inu, bute preto opatrn a pripraven", "Regulations Prescribing Certain Firearms and other Weapons, Components and Parts of Weapons, Accessories, Cartridge Magazines, Ammunition and Projectiles as Prohibited or Restricted (SOR/98-462)", "Vancouver police warn of criminal charges for carrying bear spray in the city", "Pepper Spray | Transportation Security Administration", "Mace, Pepper Spray, Self-Defense Sprays and Stun Guns | mpdc", "States With Pepper Spray Restrictions | eBay", "Pepper Spray (Mace/Tear Gas) - Consumer Wiki", "Mass. (e)(1)No person shall purchase, possess, or use any tear gas weapon that expels a projectile, or that expels the tear gas by any method other than an aerosol spray, or that contains more than 2.5 ounces net weight of aerosol spray. A criminal record can affect job, immigration, licensing and even housing opportunities. Pepper (oleoresin capsicum) spray is a commonly used riot-control and violence suppressive agent. It can also cause corneal abrasions if youre shooting it directly into someones eyes., The CDC calls these agents riot control agents in a fact sheet, saying they are sometimes referred to as tear gas' and are chemical compounds that temporarily make people unable to function by causing irritation to the eyes, mouth, throat, lungs, and skin. The CDC mentions pepper spray as one of those agents. As used in this section, a "flammable substance" means: gasoline, These are: Penal Code 171b PC is the California statute that makes it a crime to: Weapons under this statute include any unauthorized tear gas weapon. OFFER: Save 45% on 'How It Works' 'All About Space' and 'All About History'! Every crime in California is defined by a specific code section. Higher OC content only reliably implies a higher oil content, which may be undesirable as the. Legal defenses to assault with caustic chemicals, 4.2. Users can spray the can on an angle for hard-to-reach areas. The defendant did not intend to injure or disfigure the other person, or. In the great majority of cases, the management of topical chemical burns consists of the following general steps: Ensure protection of rescuers and health care workers from exposure. At about 6:50 p.m., Trump ended his speech, saying, And now Im going to pay my respects to a very, very special place. He and other administration officials then walked to St. Johns Episcopal Church, across the street from Lafayette Square, where Trump posed for photos while holding up a Bible. They are highly corrosive and pose a risk to workers who must handle them or work in proximity to them. Kearneys 2014 study reviewed 10 years of pepper spray exposures reported to a poison control system (from 2002 to 2011) and found a low 1 in 15 potential risk for more severe adverse health effects in persons exposed to pepper spray that warranted a medical evaluation. Members of the riot police use larger pepper-spray canisters than what is used by a normal police officer. The first commercial product of its type, Litman's design packaged phenacyl chloride (CN) tear gas dissolved in hydrocarbon solvents into a small aerosol spray can, usable in many environments and strong enough to act as a deterrent and incapacitant when sprayed in the face. Civilians may carry canisters filled with maximum 20 grams (0.71oz) of any other, However, there is no restriction for pepper. This definition distinguishes tear gas from personal self-defence sprays which use foams, gels and liquids. To speak with our firm about your assault with caustic chemical case in Orlando, contact us online or call 407-228-3838 for a free consultation. Criminal Defense Penal Code PC 22810 Unlawful Use of Tear Gas. Pepper spray designed to be used against people is considered a prohibited weapon in Canada. Shouse Law Group has wonderful customer service. Pepper sprays. New Zealand Prison Service made OC spray available for use in approved situations in 2013. Full coverage and live updates on the Coronavirus. 28.) A prosecutor must prove the following to convict you under this statute: These laws also make it illegal to use or possess tear gas if you: This prohibition stands even if the gas is used for self-defense. Common defenses include: A violation of this statute is a wobbler. Call us to discuss your case with an experienced California assault and battery lawyer. Definitely recommend! CS sprays bearing a test mark of the MPA may be owned and carried by anyone over the age of 14. It is an offense to use pepper spray on anyone for reasons other than self-defense. In the interview, Brennan pressed Barr on the decision to aggressively clear peaceful protestors from Lafayette Park in Washington, D.C., prior to a walk through the park for a photo opportunity by President Donald Trump at St. John's Church. It can cause significant pain but usually does not affect vision and rarely causes any damage to the eye. We do not handle any of the following cases: And we do not handle any cases outside of California. Use has not been inducted on the law enforcement officer's arsenal. Mace is the brand name of an early type of aerosol self-defense spray invented by Alan Lee Litman in the 1960s. Direct close-range spray can cause more serious eye irritation by attacking the cornea with a concentrated stream of liquid (the so-called "hydraulic needle" effect). In general, victims are encouraged to blink vigorously in order to encourage tears, which will help flush the irritant from the eyes. It is a concentrated chemical weapon which is designed to cause pain, irritation and intense discomfort. Himalayan ghost pepper clock in at ~1 million. Unlike tear gas, that wears off fairly quickly, pepper spray will continue to be painful for 30 minutes or more and discomfort may be experienced for hours. Legal defenses to charges of assault with a caustic chemical often include: To help you better understand the crime of assault with caustic chemicals, our California criminal defense lawyers discuss the following, below: California Penal Code 244 PC defines assault with caustic chemicals as: Any person who willfully and maliciously places or throws, or causes to be placed or thrown, upon the person of another, any vitriol, corrosive acid, flammable substance, or caustic chemical of any nature, with the intent to injure the flesh or disfigure the body of that person, is punishable by imprisonment in the state prison for two, three or four years. [32] by moving away from the source and to fresh air. Chemicals are in almost everything; food, animals, plants and yes - pepper spray. US Attorney General William Barr said there was no tear gas used, claiming pepper spray is not a chemical irritant. (11G0142) (GU n. 157 del 8-7-2011)", "IX-705 Lietuvos Respublikos ginkl ir audmen kontrols statymas", "Tamsus paros metas ilgja: Pasak geriausi priemon apsiginti nuo plik", " 3 . Artillery shells were filled with chemicals such as xylyl bromide and chloroacetone and fired at enemy soldiers. Chap 238. In order to be guilty of ADW, a defendant must use force that is likely to produce, How badly the alleged victim was injured; and. Flashpoint refers to the lowest temperature at which a liquids vapor can ignite. ), Abrupt and extraordinarily aggressive dispersal of protesters at H and 16th with Trump about to speak from the Rose Garden. During the argument, she picks up a mop bucket and throws the contents onto Mark. You need an experienced criminal defense attorney to stand by you in court. One pepper spray company even advertises its product as the most effective chemical irritant available.. But when capsaicin touches a mucous membrane, it triggers pain receptors, creating a burning sensation. Weve established pepper spray is a chemical, but is it also a kind of tear gas? Regardless of the impetus, USPP used force to move the protesters, including, as can be seen in multiple videos, loud flashes, smoke and officers on horseback. The penalties depend on whether 22810 PC is charged as a felony or not. Unpub. A fine of up to ten thousand dollars ($10,000). This legislation makes it an offense for someone without a permit, normally anyone who is not an officer of Police/Correctional Services/Customs/Defence, to carry a prohibited weapon. Capsaicin is not soluble in water, and even large volumes of water will not wash it off, only dilute it. 2 There have been various anecdotal treatments published but little research into their efficacyincluding vegetable oil, baking soda paste, vinegar, milk, alcohol, lidocaine gel, antacids and corticosteroids. 22810. Pepper spray handguns can be bought and carried without any license by anyone over 18. Some are less serious versions of Californias assault and battery laws. 3.1 Heating Solutions from Powerblanket. Eduardo Delgado, the spokesperson for the U.S. Park Police, told a Vox reporter. There are several counterparts of pepper spray developed and legal to possess in some countries. Most commonly, "caustics" or "caustic tanks" is referring to the use and storage of sodium hydroxide (more commonly referred to as caustic soda).
James Spader House Greenwich Village, Jack And Jill Nicknames For Each Other, 1933 Willys Coupe For Sale, Dennis Taylor Racing Net Worth, Articles I